Prejudices
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A majority of studies looked at implicit prejudice. However, 5 articles looked at implicit stereotypes as well as implicit prejudices in their interventions and 3 articles looked only at implicit stereotypes. Of these, only 3 interventions were effective at reducing stereotyping. The stereotypes investigated were the following: fat/lazy versus thin/motivated (3 articles); Dutch/high status versus ethnic minority/low status; Dutch/leader versus ethnic minority/leader (SC-IAT); men/leader versus women/supporter; men/science versus women/humanities; Spanish/active versus Moroccan/restful; white/mental versus black/physical.
Current data do not allow the identification of reliably effective interventions to reduce implicit biases. As our systematic review reveals, many interventions have no effect, or may even increase implicit biases. Caution is thus advised when it comes to programs aiming at reducing biases. Much more investigation into the long term effects of possible interventions is needed. The most problematic fine-grained implicit stereotypes need to be identified and a range of specifically-tailored interventions need to be designed to combat the whole gamut of prejudices that are problematic in our societies, not only targeting black/white race prejudice. More research needs to be conducted examining the conditions under which interventions will work and the factors that make them fail.
Young-Bruehl (1996) argued that prejudice cannot be treated in the singular; one should rather speak of different prejudices as characteristic of different character types. Her theory defines prejudices as being social defences, distinguishing between an obsessional character structure, primarily linked with anti-semitism, hysterical characters, primarily associated with racism, and narcissistic characters, linked with sexism.[13]
The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when the resource is insignificant. In the Robber's Cave experiment,[16] negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal.
Paul Bloom argues that while prejudice can be irrational and have terrible consequences, it is natural and often quite rational. This is because prejudices are based on the human tendency to categorise objects and people based on prior experience. This means people make predictions about things in a category based on prior experience with that category, with the resulting predictions usually being accurate (though not always). Bloom argues that this process of categorisation and prediction is necessary for survival and normal interaction, quoting William Hazlitt, who stated \"Without the aid of prejudice and custom, I should not be able to find my way my across the room; nor know how to conduct myself in any circumstances, nor what to feel in any relation of life\".[21]
In recent years, researchers have argued that the study of prejudice has been traditionally too narrow. It is argued that since prejudice is defined as a negative affect towards members of a group, there are many groups against whom prejudice is acceptable (such as rapists, men who abandon their families, pedophiles, neo-Nazis, drink-drivers, queue jumpers, murderers etc.), yet such prejudices aren't studied. It has been suggested that researchers have focused too much on an evaluative approach to prejudice, rather than a descriptive approach, which looks at the actual psychological mechanisms behind prejudiced attitudes. It is argued that this limits research to targets of prejudice to groups deemed to be receiving unjust treatment, while groups researchers deem treated justly or deservedly of prejudice are overlooked. As a result, the scope of prejudice has begun to expand in research, allowing a more accurate analysis of the relationship between psychological traits and prejudice.[22][excessive citations]
The first and most important step in the fight against everyday prejudices is to recognise them, and to acknowledge that we are all affected by them. Everyone has definite ideas about certain groups of people that never apply to all members of that group. If you are, and remain, aware of this fact, you have already taken the biggest step.
The second step is to try to make sure that your own prejudices do not determine your behaviour. Prejudice should never lead to exclusion or discrimination against others. Also, make sure that you do not spread your own prejudices.
How do you do that You can ask people to tone it down. You can discuss the issue or make yourself heard in another way. You can let people know that you are not okay with offensive or insulting prejudices - whether they affect others or yourself.
Anyone can determine her or his own prejudices by taking the online tests. Those that measure race, ethnic, sex, and age bias are available at tolerance.org. You can view a test demonstration or, by giving some information about yourself, actually take a test. More than 60 different tests are also available at implicit.harvard.edu. Topics range from animals to politics.
Being aware of differences is not the same as avoiding, ridiculing, or fearing specific differences. Moreover, awareness does not lead to negative attitudes. Children learn biases from important adults in their lives, from the media, from books and from peers. Parents and adult family members need to talk to their kids-to give them accurate information and to reinforce when their behaviors indicate a value of differences as opposed to a prejudice. Surprisingly, many adults have trouble opening up and broaching the subject. For these adults it's a good idea to practice the discussion with an adult before taking it up with children. Above all, parents and adult family members should ensure their words of wisdom are in tune with their actions. Sending a contradictory message only reinforces prejudices and stereotypes.
And the types discriminatory behavior prejudice can spur include excluding and harming others, Fiske said. She and her colleagues have also found evidence that emotional prejudices of pity, envy, disgust and pride exist across cultures and, through neuroimaging studies, that these four emotions may activate distinct parts of the brain.
So far, they've found that \"differentiated prejudices appear to lead to differentiated activations,\" Fiske said. These brain activations add to evidence from verbal reports that emotional prejudices reside in particular brain regions and suggest that these reactions are immediate and not necessarily conscious, she explained.
In the results, innocent, inoffensive preferences, such as for flowers over insects, showed up, but so did more serious prejudices related to gender and race. The Princeton machine-learning experiment replicated the broad biases exhibited by human subjects who have taken select Implicit Association Test studies.
Prejudices held by those selecting new employees may affect their decisions. Also, among the unemployed themselves, stigma-consciousness arising from the awareness of prejudices may reduce their self-esteem and the way they look for new or better jobs.
However, the prejudices that presumably influence chances in the labour market have seldom been investigated directly: Are these prejudices widespread And who is expressing them This leads us to the following research questions: Who are the people that actually hold these prejudices And what factors foster the development of or a predisposition towards prejudice Who draws and strengthens the boundaries, and who constructs such (spoiled) identities As identities are built in an interactive process between generalised others (people who are more or less prejudiced) and the target person (a person who is more or less stigmatised), there are two sides of the coin to be considered. This study focuses on the prejudices held by employed people, who may contribute to generating the stigma associated with being unemployed.
In the following sections, we do not investigate attitudes about specific welfare policies, social interventions, or redistribution. Rather, we examine specific prejudices against unemployed people and the origins of these prejudices. This is the first study that systematically investigates which groups hold prejudices against the unemployed under the conditions of the German labour market and social regime.
Theories suitable for our research question are group conflict theory (Sherif and Hovland 1961; Sherif et al. 1961; Sherif 1966), the theory of social comparison (Festinger 1954), and the approach of prejudice as self-image maintenance (Fein and Spencer 1997). These theories were adopted, integrated, and/or refined by Tajfel and Turner (Turner 1975; Tajfel and Turner 1979) in their social identity theory. We therefore apply social identity theory (Tajfel 1974; Turner 1975; Tajfel and Turner 1979) to explain prejudices against the unemployed.Footnote 1 According to Brown (2003), existing empirical evidence on this application of social identity theory is inconclusive. In applying social identity theory, we argue as follows:
Within the group of employed people we can identify several subgroups that are disadvantaged in the labour market. A lot of labour market studies investigate whether gender, ethnic, age or weight discrimination can be observed in the labour market. With respect to wages, re-employment chances, job search duration, or leadership positions; this is sometimes done by using field experiments (e.g. for gender differences see: Behr and Theune 2018, for ethnic discrimination: Brenzel and Reichelt 2015; Nanos and Schluter 2014; Kaas and Manger 2012; Braakmann 2009, for age discrimination: Heywood et al. 2010, for weight discrimination: Katsaiti and Shamsuddin 2016; Bozoyan and Wolbring 2018). However, these studies look at concrete dimensions of labour market integration, and do not measure prejudices directly against the respective target group. 153554b96e
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